Identtifying a Nation's Possibilities. Costa Rica Essay

Identtifying a Nation's Possibilities. Costa Rica - Essay Example In 1969, a constitutional amendment was adopted to limit to a single term the length of a President’s and Legislators tenure. This prohibition was however overturned in April 2003 effectively paving the way for the President to seek a second term. In that election, Oscar Arias Sanchez received 40% of the popular vote. The next elections are slated for February 2010. Costa Rica has a unicameral Legislative Assembly. The assembly at full seating has fifty-seven (57) members. The members are elected by direct popular vote to a single four-year term. The Legislature writes and enacts laws for the country. Elections into the Costa Rica Legislative Assembly were held in 5 February 2006, the next scheduled polls are to be in 2010. Costa Rica does not have provincial legislature, they were abolished in 1998. The Costa Rican Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Costa Rica highest court is the Corte Suprema or Supreme Court. The court is composed of twenty-two (22) elected Justices. The Justices are elected by for renewable eight-year terms. The terms are only renewable by the Legislative Assembly. Costa Rica’s legal system is based on Spanish civil law. There is judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court. Costa Rica is also a signatory of the International Criminal Justice jurisdiction. Although Costa Rica has no military; the Federal Government maintains a domestic Police force and an armed National Guard. President Jose Figueres Ferrer abolished the army in after the 1948 civil war. The abolition became an act of the constitution in 1949. Current President Oscar Arias Sanchez declared December 1 as the Military abolition day. Costa Rica’s political parties are very ideological with nationalist, progressive, libertarian, socialist and leftist agendas. The leading parties include Citizen Action Party (PAC), Costa Rican Renovation Party (PRC), Democratic Force Party (PFD), General Union Party ( PUGEN),

The Establishment of Indian Reservations in the U.S Term Paper

The Establishment of Indian Reservations in the U.S - Term Paper Example The official start of the segregation of the native Indians began with the Indian Removal of 1830 which forced the migration of many of the tribes living east of the Mississippi river to the west side of the river1. In doing so the US government gained control of the best farming lands needed for the expansion of the European population and started off a trend of isolating the tribes and impinging on their basic rights in their own homeland which would lead on to have negative percussions for those people and tribes for the centuries to come. The treaties and forceful migration of the tribes was propagated as a means to provide them with their sovereignty and right to their lifestyle within the specified reservations. Even if one ignores the fact that many of the tribes did not regard these measures as anything of benefit for themselves and that military confrontations were often involved in ensuring their compliance with the legislations, there is still the question of the quality o f the land that was allotted to them and the lifestyle options available to them in the reservations. Lands kept for Indian use were commonly considered as the least desirable by whites and were almost always located far from major population centers, trails, and transportation routes- all necessary elements for economic growth and communication with the mainland cities. The result was that the Indians were unable to find sufficient means to find sustainable livelihoods and find the resources to use towards social development for their communities. The appalling social conditions of the reservations were widely acknowledged by the end of 19th century but government initiatives of ‘forced assimilation’ (1887) and then nearly a century later the Termination legislation (1953)2 failed to bring about any major impact in the opportunities available to the Indians or the reservations as a whole. The Termination legislation put forward idea of disbanding the communities as ind ependent political entities but that proved to be unpopular and was abandoned. Even though the Termination legislation was put into practice along with a wide scale relocation and employment program to provide financial and social assistance to the Indian youth who would be losing the close knit community atmosphere of the reservations, the low participation rate provided the government with one key insight to the lives of the natives. Despite the rampant social problems including unemployment, high crime rates, poor housing, lack of adequate child support and crime- the reservations are still thought of as a common cultural base for the Indians. The tight knit families and extended families live in close proximity and the cultural heritage is passed through one generation to the other. Languages, customs and traditions are protected in the circle of community; this wouldn’t be possible if the individual members were scattered as they are in urban settings3. Reservations have now become a part of the Indian identity and one they are not willing to part with easily- in some cases there isolation from the mainstream population actually makes them unfit for a life outside of the reservations and any opportunities ava

Conflict and Violence in Premarital Relationship Essay Example for Free

Conflict and Violence in Premarital Relationship Essay Incidence of conflicts and violence in premarital relationship seems to happen regularly. This research paper discusses the many possible reasons that would cause someone to become a victim or perpetrator in premarital relationships. A root cause of premarital violence is in childhood experiences. Individuals develop a certain relationship style based on their childhood experiences that influences how they behave in close relationships. Childhood emotional trauma causes children to develop insecure relationship style that produces adults with many emotional and psychological issues such as depression and anger. These styles are termed: the secure, the avoidant, the ambivalent and the disorganized relationship style. Children learn to communicate and interact with others through observing the way their manage conflicts parents. Conflicts occur often, mainly due to the lack of communication skills between couples and individual insecurities. Uncontrolled and unmanaged conflicts can cause one or both partners lose control, and quite often, the heated conflict ends in violence. Introduction Conflicts that arise in premarital relationships may be due to both dyadic and individual problems. These conflicts often lead to violence in relationships. The way someone reacts to lifes problems or issues is rooted in the way he or she is raised and his or her childhood experiences. The term premarital used throughout this paper refers to only a male-female relationship. The terms such as courtship, dating relationships, also refers to the entire scope of heterosexual dating behavior, from casual dating through engagement and/or cohabitation. A premarital relationship is defined as any romantic love relationship involving a male and a female before marriage or outside of marriage. The essence of romance is characterized by a marked physical attraction, strong emotional attachment between the partners, and a tendency for each to idealize the other (Waller ; Hill, 1951). Premarital relationships in this research paper includes anyone from as young as high school students to seniors. Conflicts Lead to Violence Conflict in premarital relationships can be defined as a disagreement, a quarrel or dispute, or a discord of action or feeling. According to Tim Clinton (2006), there are three levels of relationship dispute which are termed renegotiation, impasse or dissolution. Level one (renegotiation) involves someone who is angry and bickers about his or her differences and who is governed by fears and anger. Level two (impasse) is where both individuals begin to disengage emotionally from each other and no longer confide or trust each other. Level three (dissolution) is where couples eventually reach a point where they completely cut themselves off emotionally from each other (Clinton 2006). Violence in premarital relationships include acts that involves any force that is unjust, rough or injurious to another person. Henton et al. (1983), reported several types of violent behaviors such as pushing, grabbing or shoving, slapping and kicking, biting or hitting with the fist. Relationship violence involves both the victimized and the perpetrator. When a conflict gets out of hand and escalates, one or both partners lose control, and quite often the heated conflict ends in violence (Lloyd et al. , 1989). Alarmingly, violence in courtship seems to happen regularly between 1 in 3 and 1 in 2 college students and 1 in 10 high school students experience violence as victims or perpetrators (Cate et al. , 1982; Laner ; Thompson, 1982; Makepeace, 1981; Roscoe ; Callahan, 1985; Rouse et al. , 1988; Stets ; Straus, 1989). The ability of premarital partners to overlook, forgive, or ignore negative interaction that is even encouraged and supported by peer groups is due to the power of romance (Lloyd, 1991). Individual and Childhood Problems Childhood experiences have a lasting effect on people according to the Social Learning Theory. Exposure to violence during childhood makes individuals more prone to be involved in a violent intimate relationship. The witnessing of violence in the family of origin links to violent experience and perpetration in premarital relationships Gover et al. (2008) explored the association between exposure to violence in the family of origin and subsequent physical violence and psychological abuse in dating relationship. Dating violence victimization and perpetration, has been linked to exposure to violence during early childhood. Gover et al. 2008) termed this hypothesis intergenerational transmission of violence, where exposure to violence during childhood is related to subsequent involvement in violent intimate relationships (p. 1668). The hypothesis explains how dating violence is more likely in people that experienced child abuse or witnessed parental violence. The study looked at the interpersonal violence between dating partners in several ways by using large sample of male and female college students to comprehensively examine the intergenerational transmission of violence hypothesis. Women are more often victimized than men. The study by Gover et al. , showed that childhood abuse is associated with the likelihood of dating violence victimization among females but not males. The results showed a correlation between childhood violence victimization and physical violence perpetration in a dating relationship, which supported the intergenerational transmission of violence hypothesis. They also concluded that there is a significant relationship between physical dating violence victimization for women who were exposed to paternal perpetrated abuse. Witnessing violence between parents does not have as much of a significant impact on dating violence perpetration in comparison to female exposure to paternal perpetrated abuse. Child abuse is related to dating violence victimization and perpetration especially among males; women are more likely to become victimized rather than the perpetrator according to some studies. Child abuse involves psychological abuse, emotional neglect, sexual abuse, exposure to severe marital conflict and addictive behavior (Clinton, 2006). According to the Gover et al. tudy, violence victimization and perpetration are experienced by those who witnessed one parent hit the other parent and experienced childhood abuse at higher rates in dating relationships in comparison to those who were not exposed to violence during childhood. Ones childhood relationships are very important because they shape the chemical processes in the brain that determine how someone controls his or her impulses, calm or strong emotions and develop memories in their early family life. Tim Clinton (2006) believes that everyone develops relationship rules, which determines their relationship style from childhood. He described four relationship styles in his book, Why You Do the Things You Do: The Secret to Healthy Relationships; the secure, the avoidant, the ambivalent and the disorganized relationship style. The underlying reason why people do the things they do is their relationship style or their attachment style. Special relationship, bond, or connection with another person that is characterized by strong emotions and continues through time is what Clinton (2006) refers to as attachment. A persons relationship style is determined by the interactions between a mother and her infant over time. These interactions teach her child certain relationship rules, which are core beliefs about one self and others. These core beliefs may not always be fully conscious to the individual, but they influence the behavior of everyone in a powerful way, such as the tendencies to act violently or easily become a victim in premarital relationships. Insecure relationship styles, the avoidant, the ambivalent and the disorganized relationship style are most likely to experience relational conflicts more often than those with secure relationship style. Children learn how to manage conflict from watching the way their parents work out their disagreements. A childs security is also threatened when he sees his parents in screaming matches, physical struggles or violence (Clinton, 2006). An individual with a disorganized relationship style is at a high risk to fall into deep depression because this person has been borderline depressed and anxious throughout life. Events such as job loss, conflict with a friend, financial struggles can cause him or her to sink rapidly into serious depression. Those with poor mental health outcomes such as anxiety, depression, reduced self-esteem, stress, and various physical health consequences, have been involved in a violent relationship (Gibb et al. , 2004; Messman-Moore et al. , 2000). The potential for violence can be linked to someone who has developed a disorganized relationship style. Children who develop a disorganized relationship style have been traumatized by their own parents, who were both a source and the solution to their fears and anxieties. This simply means that these children had no solution or safe haven for them. As a result, these children become emotionally disorganized and fragmented during stressful times (Clinton, 2006). There are two sources of stress that influence individuals or couples; positive events that comes with a challenge and negative events that comes with threat and harm or loss. There are contradicting studies of dating violence, and the role that stress plays in premarital love relation conflict is not yet clear. Men and women may react differently to stress according to OLearys (1998) theoretical formulation of spouse aggression. Wethington et al. (1987) reported that research on acute stressors shows that males and females are similar in the number of undesirable events experienced, but that males seem more emotionally affected. Therefore, if there is a relationship between stress and violence, it might be greater for males than females (Marshall Rose, 1990). Marshall and Rose (1990) conducted a study to test the influence of stress on relationship conflicts and violence. They found that positive stress contributed to males recent expression of violence, (p. 61). The reason why positive stress but not negative stress, contributed to males expression of violence is unclear according to Marshal and Rose (1990). This finding is contrary to previously similar studies done by other researchers, however, this contrast may be due to the fact that Marshal and Rose allowed the observers, rather than the respondents to classify the direction of stress impact, whether they are positive or negative. Stress is a secondary emotional reaction, when someone tries to repress primary emotions such as fear or pain due to life issues (Clinton, 2006). An individual who has an avoidant relationship style tends to be narcissistic who can easily become even more self-absorbed under stress. Possibilities for conflicts would increase dramatically for these types of individuals because when they receive negative feedback, for instance, they become angry and contemptuous, (Kindle Locations 1522-1526). This kind of behavior brings constant or more frequent conflicts under stressful times for both individuals. Dyadic Problems In premarital relationships, mutual admiration and devotion exist between couples, especially when they move towards a deeper level of commitment. In contrast to these qualities, most couples were found to be in mutual combat because more than two-thirds of one sample reported reciprocal violence (Carte et al. , 1982). Some individuals, whose perception of dating is one of a carefree experience to be enjoyed or to just have a good time, approach their problems by using their partners as targets to physically act out feelings of anger, confusion and jealousy (Henton et al. 1983). A study done by Henton et al. (1983) assessed the incidence and context of the use of violence in high school relationship because the first experiences in forming intimate relationships occur for many individuals during high school. He found that a significant number of high school students have experienced premarital violence in one or more relationships. In 71. 4% of high school relationships where violence occurred, it was found that the pattern of abuse was reciprocal, where each partner had been both the victim and aggressor at some point in time. The remaining 28. 6 %, four patterns were identified; male abuser only, female abuser only, abused male and abused female. Most individuals remained in violent relationships because they felt that they have significantly fewer alternatives than those who terminated such relationships. Individual tends to tolerate or have a more positive attitude towards premarital violence if they have been involved in abusive relationships than those who were involved in non-abusive relationships (Henton et al. 1983). This finding in this study suggests that the occurrence of premarital violence is because of dyadic problems rather than solely a result of individual characteristics. One suggestion as to why victims had a more positive attitude towards violence may be because victims of violence may have become addicted to such trauma. The brain releases chemicals called endogenous opioids, natural painkillers that are the brain’s equivalent to heroin whenever someone is under extreme stress. The stress of relationship violence could easily cause victims to become addicted to the drug. For someone to withdraw from that drug would be similar to breaking a drug addiction. Increasing the difficulty is the fact that the withdrawal symptoms parallel the nightmare of the traumatized person: emptiness, tension, irritability, and an internal sense of unrest, (Clinton, 2006, Kindle Locations 2131-2137). The person may return to the trauma and its â€Å"morphine,† in order to relieve the symptoms. Another way addiction to trauma can develop is fear of the unknown Clinton, 2006, Kindle Locations 2131-2137. The state of ones emotional wellbeing is a factor that influences how couples handle conflicts and whether they are prone to violence or foster safety. Emotion, according to Clinton (2006), is The physical, gut-felt responses that fuel our behavior and motivate us to act, (Kindle Locations 4310-4311). Emotions are what motivate someone to seek closeness during times of stress and therefore, they are very important in relationships. Specific emotional components such as positive affective tone, listening and understanding, and self-disclosure, protect premarital relationships from violence (Prager Buhrmester, 1998). Those individuals who did not develop a secure relationship style as termed by Tim Clinton (2006) foster many kinds of negative emotions because of insecurities they developed from childhood. Individuals with the ambivalent relationship style tend to be anxious, melodramatic or angry. These individuals would be prone to violence in their dating relationships. Swett and Marcus (2002) explored the issues about couples emotional dynamics and violence. A group of upper-level undergraduates were asked a number of questions about their current relationship, about the duration of their relationships, number of times in previous relationships they had physical fights and the severity of injury they had suffered as a result (Swett Marcus, 2002). The findings of the study support the importance of the intimacy components of positive affective tone and listening and understanding in reducing dyadic violence. The quality of emotional interactions is a factor that influences violent tendencies in premarital relationships. Positive emotions that involve positive affective tone and listening and understanding, can inhibit violence in relationship, and therefore serve as protections against violence (Swett Marcus, 2002). Unhealthy communication leads to conflicts, it prevents couples from being able to talk through their feelings. Tim Clinton (2006), talks about four kinds of unhealthy communication, in his book, he explained how criticism, defensiveness, contempt and stonewalling are all forms of unhealthy communication. Criticism comes in a form of questioning that implies that the other person has a character flaw, for example, why do you always do that? You never do what you say youre going to do. I just cant count on you for anything, (Kindle Locations 775-776). Defensiveness is a reaction against a criticism causing retaliation, for example, â€Å"What do you mean I never do what I say? How many times have you not come through when I needed you to help me out with the kids? You don’t help. You just whine and complain that things don’t happen according to your schedule! † (Kindle Locations 778-779). Contempt comes when criticism and defensiveness intensifies, derogatory remarks, put-downs and extreme distress result. For example, some one who is in contempt might say something like this, â€Å"You make me sick! You never do what you say you’ll do. You’re a big talker, just like your mother, but you never follow through. I’ve grown used to not being able to rely on you, so I’ll just do everything myself—like always. † (Kindle Locations 782-784). Stonewalling results from a high intensity of contempt, causing a person to shut down and stop participating in conversation by walking out of the room or stare off into space. These behaviors can increase the other person’s rage and spark another round of criticism. Kindle Locations 785-787). People with insecure relationship styles would be at a higher risk of relationship violence victimization and or perpetration. Conclusion Although squabbles are a necessary part of every couples growth together, when carefully managed or regulated, is a building block for a healthy relationship, one that is vibrant and thriving (Clinton, 2006). People who are at less risk for relationship violence victimization and perpetration are most likely to possess a secure relationship style. These people are confident in their identity, their effectiveness in the world and trust others. This allows them to have a healthy way of interacting with and relating to people. Secure people are emotionally strong, willing to seek and accept comfort from others, courageous about love and intimacy, and responsible for themselves,(Kindle Location 4337). There are many other factors that potentially increase the chances for individuals to have a healthy love relationship with another person. Individuals, who have higher attachment to his or her parents during childhood, were less likely to be responsible for dating violence (Chapple Hope, 2003). Religious institutions were found to be a protective factor for potential violence dating relationship. Students reporting more church attendance were less likely to be involved in a violent dating relationship (Coker et al. , 2000; Gover, 2004). Conflicts often arise because of the lack of communication skills and resolution skills. Couples should learn to talk openly and honestly about our feelings, both positive and negative ones. A healthy form of communication can develop this way between couples. It will help them avoid unnecessary conflicts that can eventually escalate to violence.

Approaches To Hr By Multinational Corporations Management Essay

Approaches To Hr By Multinational Corporations Management Essay For better understanding this is important to discuss what a multinational company is in first place. In short words multinational company can be defined as a company or an organization that serves or produce in more than one country is known as multinational company. Other names use for such kind of organizations is Multinational Corporation (MNC), Transnational Corporation (TNC) or Multinational Enterprise (MNE). Multinational organization can be engaged in manufacturing, services or the exploitation of natural resources in the operating countries. Different writers described different definition of multinational companies. According to Moore Lewis (1999, P. 21) stated that an enterprise that engages in foreign direct investment (FDI) and own or controls value adding activities in more than one country is known as multinational enterprise. As Jones (1996, p.4) says An MNE is usually defined as firm that controls operations or income generating assets in more than one country. The re is a long list of multinational firms like Sony, Nestle, Wal-Mart Stores, General Motors, Ford Motor, ConocoPhillips Microsoft, Nokia, Toyota Motors, Intel, Coco-Cola, Sony, IBM, Nike and Citigroup etc. Now the main question is about the multinational companies of different origin adopt different approaches of HRM practices. To discuss this section this is really important to discuss the HRM practices in first place, to define what HRM is and then its practices will be discussed throughout this essay step by step, and then practices of HRM in broader context for the MNCs or MNEs. HRM is modern word use in the businesses, which can be defined as a model of personnel management that focuses on the individual rather than taking collective approach. (www.dictionary.bnet.com). As Pennington Edwards (2000, P. 4) stated that Human Resource Management (HRM) is a new way of thinking about how people should be managed as employees in the workplace. It can be classified into two schools of thoughts.i.e. Hard HRM Soft HRM. Both types of HRM are under studies of different authors in detail. Now to concentrate on the question directly a survey is going to be under studies Country of origin effects and HRM in multinational companies which took place in 2007 by P. Edwards et al. In which he discussed 302 UK based multinational companies, which cover both UK owned and overseas owned companies. This study will play an important part in the essay to get the conclusion either multinational companies of different nationalities have different HRM approaches and practices or not. 2- Challenges in multinationals According to Brett, Jeanne Kristin, 2006, international businesss nature is going under a sea change. The globalisation, multi-nationalisation, and the geographical diversification is pushing companies towards change in their management structure and style. Multinationals now need to consider regional market conditions and develop strategies to cater to each of the regional markets. 2.1- Culture shock Culture shock is the big challenge for multinationals, the difference brings the different thinking ways and working ways, and it needs time to adjust it. In most cases the expatriate manager prefer to emphasize and require the home office or home country values on the host countrys employees instead of accepting and learning within the new culture. (Adler, 2002) 2.2- Lack of cross cultural training In fact, most multinationals ignore this training program during the staffing management. However, the better understanding about culture block can help managers to improve the effectiveness of staffing management. For example, The managers at Bell Canada were totally asked be training about Muslim laws of drinking and the treating of women there before he or she assigned a project for Saudi Arabia such like constructing the telephone system in there. (Adler, 2002) 2.3- Family problems Family problem for PNC manager is another challenge. The overseas employees always think of their family. Sometime, such emotion will effect the concentrations in their work. These difficulties are usually underestimated. What the organization should do is to assist expatriates family to adapt their new environment. (Dolan, 1996) 3- HRM Functions in MNCs Team members of multinational companies come from different countries with the different culture, economic, religions and habits. All of these differences bring the different thinking and working methods, thus, how to manage the multicultural team is a big challenge for the HRM in the multinationals. In the article Managing multicultural team, the author states that Communication in Western cultures is typically direct and explicit. In many other cultures, meaning is embedded in the way the message is presented. The differences can cause serious damage to team relationships (Jeanne Breeet , Kristin Behfar, and Mary C. Kern, 2007) . 3.1 Retaining subsidiary staffs retention It can be argued that the retention of staffing in the multinationals subsidiary conducts huge influence. The transfers between the PCNs, HCNs and the TCNs are the big issues in the staffing management strategy. Scolders identify that the HCNs and TCNs who are sent to the corporate headquarters (HQ) called inpatriates. As this article mentioned before, the ethnocentric approach, the polycentric approach, the regioncentric approach, and the geocentric approach are the four major nationality staffing policies in the international staffing, by analyzing the complex and the new situation appear in the relationships between the HQ and subsidiary, B. Sebastian Reiche (2007) explores the international stiffing-related retention strategies . Firstly, he claims that a pluralistic and consensus-driven approach to international staffing enhances the retention capacity of international staffing practices through increased responsiveness to and involvement of the respective local unit. He states that the knowledge and skill from the local staff can help multinationals to reduce the risk and culture-bound in the local market. He also believes that this approach can improve the loyalty of local staffs, and the local staff can achieve individual career plan to cohere the institutional development plan. At the same time, he states that the PCNs still act as the vital role for informal controlling and coordination in the multinational companies. Secondly, he indicates that expatriation of local staff can help to retain the MNCss retention. In this approach, he states that the inpatriates can share their social and contextual knowledge of the subsidiary environment with managers at the HQ. And also inpatriates tend to be accepted by HCNs more willingly than foreign personnel. HRM is all concern about the employees at the work place, but the demands from HRM gone up as the education rate grown up. As Pennington and Edwards (2004, P.4) stated that As a level of education become higher, a greater proportion of the population world wide expect more than fair treatment, they seek a range of intrinsic rewards such as job satisfaction, a degree of challenge, a sense of career progression and satisfying relation with co workers. 3.2 Selection Recruiting:- The main function of HRM is selecting and recruiting, no matter the firm is domestic or multinational. Staffing issue for domestic managers and MNCs managers are not very different for recruiting for the middle management or ground floor workers, but for selecting and recruiting of top management then the choices come like parent country national (PCNs), Host country national (HCNs) or third country national (TCNs). According to Parlmutter (1989) divided into three main categories. Ethnocentric where top management favours PCNs managers, who are posted abroad for a period of time. Polycentric where top management give choice to subsidies to fulfil management posts themselves, and Geocentric when top management recruits managers globally and post them anywhere in the world. For example Japanese style of HRM dont rely on interviews and job advertisements, they select the people from the universities and the most top MNCs can afford the students from the most prestigious university. According to Keeley (2001, P.62) stated that unlike the most Western companies detailed job description rarely exist. The company seeks to determine if the prospective employee has the type of personality that fits in well with the atmosphere at the company.While US MNCs rely on interview must attribute of HRM practices in their subsidies. In China, they had no selection processes per se when they first started. Senior managers were appointed by community government-officials. Most of the new hires were based on employee referrals. Selection criteria were based on nepotism and contacts. Hiring decisions are influenced by the following in china: 1. A persons ability to perform the technical requirements of the job 2. A personal interview 3. A persons ability to get along well with others already working here 4. Having the right connections (e.g. school, family, friends, region, government, etc.) 5. The companys belief that the person will stay with the company 6. An employment test in which the Person needs to demonstrate their Skills 7. Proven work experience in a similar job 8. A persons potential to do a good job, even if the person is not that good when they first start 9. How well the person will fit in the companys values and ways of doing things 10. Future co-workers opinions about whether the person should be hired (Huczynski, Andrzej / Buchanan, David, 2001) A most important attribute in Japanese style of HRM is called Shushinkoyo which means life or long term employment. This is considered the success key of Japanese HRM as stated by Keeley (2001, P.65) Nevertheless, a number of scholars both Japanese and non Japanese have praised Shushinkoyo and have attributed the success of Japanese enterprises to its practice. Here this shows that multinational companies from Japan apply different approach for selection the new recruits while US MNCs rely on a different phenomena of selection and recruitment. 3.3 Performance Appraisal:- This is the HR attribute which has significant attention from both academics and practitioners, the appraisal system in US MNCs use to reduce the labour force as stated in Edwards (2007, P. 40) that some US companies, GE for instance, have become known for using the appraisal system to remove the lower- performing employees from the workforce on a regular basis and /or to identify those in need of remedial action for their performance level. But in Japanese MNCs the companies gives the life time or long term employment as mentioned by Keeley (2001) that it is one of the best attribute of Japanese HRM in small Japanese enterprises or Japanese MNCs. Differences can b seen in the Edwards (2007) survey of Japanese and US multinational companies based in UK, where he stated that US companies are more likely to emphasise the importance of behaviour in relation to corporate values, while Japanese firms give lower importance rating to quantitative or qualitative individual evolution criteria , and criteria based on corporate values. In large organizations the performance review on periodic basis, this is second task of organizations HR departments, after hiring an employee and on the basis of performance employee get bonuses, promotions and rewards. Performance appraisals give opportunity to the workers (individual/group) to get prepare for the future goals of firm. 3.4 Pay, Compensations, Rewards Benefits:- Compensations like hourly wages and annual salaries while benefits are like life insurance, pensions and sick pays etc. According to Cherrington (1995) stated that compensation should be legal and ethical, adequate, motivate and fair, and should be able to give employment security to the worker. Pay compensation and rewards are not really different from each other, but in simple words rewards is the term use to motivate and to get the future goals by means of workforce for an organization, the reward system plays an important role, by reward (individual/group) the workers get appreciation and get themselves more committed to the firm. These are the some of the main features and functions of any (domestic/MNCs) firm HR department. In Japanese style of HRM they use a Japanese term Nenko Joretsu which means seniority system, where in Japanese HR management the wages goes up with the age and experience, as stated in Keeley (2001, P. 76) said that though nenko is most often translated as seniority'. While US and Europe MNCs apply the performance related pay system. This is the most important phenomena of MNCs HR system when they go to borderless business. According to Edwards (2007, P. 46) stated in his survey that Nationality has some effects. For example, American firms are likely to give organisational performance a higher importance rating for the KEY GROUP than others firms. UK firms are more likely emphasis individual output measures for LARGEST OCCUPATIONAL GROUP. It shows the difference in attribute of HR practices and approaches in multinational firms. 3.5 Training Development:- This is one of the important as well as crucial task for HR department for a firm operating globally, in this area of HRM multinational companies of different origin follow different approaches, for example according to Tung (1981) stated that by comparing US, European and Japanese corporations, Americans firms it seems tend to underestimate the importance of training, whereas most European and Japanese organizations see this as a highly important area of attention. The objectives and goals of training and development are to make sure the skilled and willing workers are available in the organization. Training and development are important to create a smarter working environment. In China, medium and large companies have formal training programmer and many have established special facilities for teaming purposes. Because of the lower educational level in the rural areas, the quality of the rural labour force is significantly in urban areas. Experienced, well-qualified staffs are in short supply. To disadvantage of hiring Key personnel from a shallow pool of talent, they invest heavily in training. Training is an important investment in human capital. Training improves an individuals performance and increase organizational effectiveness. (Ahlstrom Garry, 2001) Japanese MNCs pay less attention to training and development attribute of HRM, the reason might be the less mobility of workers in the Japanese firms, as they use the term Shushinkoyo. According to Keeley (2001, P. 88) stated that A study of the Japan Productivity Centre found differences in the attitudes towards training in Japanese and American firms. Where Keeley stated that from the study and respond of both countries towards training issue were positive but American firms were strong and more positive then the Japanese firms and he also stated that Japanese firms arrange training on request basis. A strategy which makes a firm successful is not easy to implement when they go beyond the borders, because of the barriers which might be language, religion, culture and legislations etc. As Keeley (2007, P.89) stated that HR practices which makes a firm successful in domestic environment are difficult to implement in their overseas subsidiaries. 4- HRM Approach in Multinational Firms: Now in this essay some of the multinational firms characteristics will be studied to see do they get affected by the country where they belong to in their HR practices and approaches or not? There are many MNCs, the country which has most MNCs is USA, and after that are Europe, Japan and Germany. There are many writers who discussed the issue of ownership and HRM in MNCs like Evan, Lank and Farquhar (1977), Barlett Goshal (1989), Rozenzweig Nohria (1994) and Innes Morris (1995) etc, which prove that the issue of ownership has been in discussion from ages, as according to Economist (1995) said that the issue of ownership is central to the number of important policy related and academic debate in the area of HRM and IR, One line of argument is that, with increasing globalization MNCs are becoming stateless players, detached from individual nation states. MNCs of different origin work in the host country by applying its local mechanism of HR practices and approaches, because it is not possible to work and apply 100% approaches of the parent country, as according to Rozenzweig Nohria (1994) said that a rank and file IR issues are more likely to exhibit local isomorphism . There are many arguments about the affection of country of origin on MNCs HR practices, the reasons are many for MNCs to adopt different approaches of HRM, as Ferner (1997) described that in short, it is imperative to take into account the dynamic of nationality as a factor affecting the behaviour of MNCs. The modernization of political institutions, the rapid pace of technology, the internationalization of product itself and changing pattern of international market and competition, all are likely to modify to pre existing national structure although not necessarily in the direction of convergence of different national systems on a single model. Now the essay will point out some differences in Chinese and American Human Resource Managements. China is one of the fastest growing economy of the world, according to Zhu (2005, P.2) explained that the past two and half decades of reforms and impressive economic growth have witnessed an unprecedented enthusiasm for the establishment of foreign invested enterprises (FIEs). Many foreign companies have expended their operations into china, attracted mainly by the sheer size of its potential market. There are many multinational firms in China like Aluminium Corp (ACH), China Petroleum Chemical Corp (SNP) and China Unicom (CHU) etc. The main practice of HRM is selection and recruitment as mentioned above, and the difference between the process of selection of Chinese and USA approach is, in USA model of HRM job interview is essential for filling a major position, while in Chinese HRM mostly jobs are allocated by government and interview process is not common. In reward system the USA model of HRM offers a variety of incentives system, while Chinese HRM system is different from USA, in Chinese system salary ranges are narrow, group reward system is common, but the pay system is more motivate than American pay system. In performance appraisal USA model of HRM believes in two way communication, while in Chinese model supervisor have absolute power and authority to evaluate subordinates, in USA participative management is welcome and encourage, but in Chinese HRM collective leadership is common, and in major decision making, the involvement of workers is symbolic. The difference can be seen in different origin or nationality MNCs that the US MNCs are significantly more like to collect information on employee attitude bring together HR managers from different countries and use HR international shared services, Japanese organizations are less likely to collect data centrally, while French origin MNCs acting more likely in US style of HRM practices, and German origin MNCs firms follow Japanese style of HRM practices. (Jackson, 2002) The best example is British American Tobacco (BAT), which is operating in a number of countries in the world, i.e. Pakistan, South Africa, UK, Japan, Saudi Arabia and many more. As this is an American based firm, and American have an interview must attribute in their HR practices, they apply the same approach for selecting and recruiting in the host country Pakistan, and the adopt some practices of Pakistan HRM practices (host country) like monthly payment of salaries instead of weekly wages, so its means BAT reflected their parent country HRM practices in some ways and in subsidies like UK, BAT apply the same HR practices and approaches as the parent country have, because the culture difference is not very distinct from each other i.e. UK and USA. (www.bat.com) (self experience as a worker of BAT in Pak) 5- Conclusion This essay was carried out to see, do multinational organizations of different origin have different approaches to international human resource management? There were some evidences that showed the answer as Yes they get affected by its country of origin in on or other way, but it is also proved that the most of MNCs adopt the best fit policy when MNCs start operating in a host country, because of the obstacles in the host country, i.e. language, religion, norms and values, culture and legislations. Writers in HRM field have different opinion about the behaving of MNCs, so the best option for MNCs is to apply the best fit approaches of the HRM practices, means combination of both (Parent Host countries) HRM practices. The issue of ownership country of MNC has been in discussion for ages, but still there is not a 100% accurate answer came out as according to Ferner (1997) said that but existing research has failed to systematically explore differences. All these discussion and researchers efforts bring the conclusion that in some HR attributes in MNCs they follow the a universal approach while in some they follow the different approaches in HR practices, according to the survey by Edwards (2007) stated that throughout the report, we have noted the persistent influence of nationality. There are clear national differences in all four area of HR/ER: Pay performance, Learning development, employee involvement and employee representation. But the bottom line can be that: yes! Multinational firms of different origin can be effected by the parent country HR practices when the run business in other part of the world instead of the home country. There are some obstacles for multinational companies which can stop them to apply the 100% parent country HR practices in their subsidies like legislation of the host country, rules and regulation and more, there is term used in Edwards (2007, P.29) survey of Multinational companies in UK called discretion or local autonomy. Which shows multinational companies of different origin give the power of decision making and freedom to their subsidies? In that survey the high discretion power firms are Japanese, which means Japanese multinational companies give more freedom to their subsidies comparatively to American, French and other Multinational firms of different origin. But another thing can be the law enforcement of subsidies (host Country), the example can be Germany where the rules and regulation are strict so the difference in practices of HR of a multinational firm would not be as bigger as in Pakistan, because of the law enforcement, like differences would be less in Europe but it would be greater in Asia. Reference and Bibliography 1- Acuff, F. (1984) International and Domestic Human Resource Functions: Innovations in International Compensation. New York: Organization Resources Counsellors, pp. 3-5. 2- Bartlett, C., Goshal, S. (1989) Managing across Borders : The Transnational Solution, Boston, Harvard Business School Press. 3- Briscoe, R.D. Schuler, R.S (2004) International Human Resource Management; 2nd Ed, New York, Prentice Hall. 4- Cherrington, D, J. (1995) the management of human resources; Enkweed Cliff, NJ: Printice Hall. 5- Edwards, P. at al. (2007) employment practices of multinational companies in organisational context: Available at: http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/wbs/projects/mncemployment/conference_papers/full_report_july.pdf 6- Ferner, A (1997) Country of origin effects and HRM in Multinational companies, Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 7, no.1, 19 28 7- Ferner, A. (2000) The embeddedness of US multinational companies in the US business system: implementation of HR/IR. 8- Harzing, W. A. Ruysseveldt, V.J. (1995) International Human Resource Management; London, SAGE Publications Ltd. 9- Harzing, W. A. Ruysseveldt, V.J. (2004) International Human Resource Management; 2nd ed. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. 10- Jemison, D, B. Sitkin, S, B (1986) Corporate acquisition: A process perspective. Academy of Management Review, 11, 145 163 11- Jackson, T. (2002) International HRM: A cross cultural approach, London; SAGE publications Ltd. 12- Jones, G. (1996) The Evolution of International Business: An Introduction; London, Routledge. 13- Keeley, T.D. (2001) International Human Resource Management in Japanese firms. Hampshire: PALGRAVE MACMILLAN. 14- KPMG (Ed) (1999) unlocking shareholder value: The keys to success. London 15- Maund, L. (2001) An Introduction to Human Resource Management: theory and practice; Basingstoke, Palgrave. 16- Moore, K. Lewis, D. (1999) Birth of Multinational; Denmark, AKA Print. 17- Ozbilgin, M. (2005) International Human Resource Management Theory and Practice. Hampshire: PALGRAVE MACMILLAN. 18- Parlmutter, H.V (1969) the tortuous evolution of the multinational corporation, Columbia Journal of World Business, 4 (1), pp. 9 18 19- Pennington, A. Edwards, T (2000) Introduction to Human Resource Management; New York, Oxford University Press Inc. 20- Pucik, V. (1984) the international management of Human Resources, in: Fombrum, C.J. Tichy, N.M. and Devana, M.A. (eds.) Strategic HRM. New York: Wiley, pp. 403 419. 21- Rozenzweig, P Nohria, N. (1994) Influence of human resource management practices in multinational corporation Journal of International Business Studies, Vol.25, no.2, 229 251 22- Stopford, J. M. Turner, L. (1985) Britain And The Multinationals; Chichester, JOHN WILEY SONS. 23- Tayab, H.M. (2005) International Human Resource Management: A Multinational Company Perspective; New York, Oxford University Press Inc. 24- The, economist. (1995). A survey of multinationals. 24th June 25- Tung, R.L. (1981) Selecting and training of personnel for overseas assignments, Columbia Journal of World Business, 16 (1), pp.68 78. 26- www.bat.com [online] Access date: 01st Aug 2009 Available at: http//:www.bat.com/group/sites/UK_3MNFEN.nsf/vwPagesWebLive/DO6Z2KVH?opendocumentSKN=1 27- Zhu, C.J. (2005) Human Resource management in China: Past, current and future HR practices in the industrial sector; New York, Routledge Curzon. 28- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_research 29- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staffing 30- International dimensions of human resource management, Peter J. Dowing Randall s. Schuler, page 4 31- Managing the global work force: Challenges and strategies, Academy of Management Executive, Roberts,K.Kossek,E.E., and Ozeki,C(1998) 12(4): 6-16 32- Adler,N.J.(2002) International dimensions of Organizational behavior, 4th edn 33- Shimon L. Dolan. International HRM Ecole de relations industrielles, Case postale 6128 Montreal, 1996 34- Brett, Jeanne; Behfar, Kristin; Kern, Mary C.. Harvard Business Review, Nov2006, Vol. 84 Issue 11, p88 (AN 22671287) 35- Edstrom, A., Galbraith, J. R. (1977). Transfer of managers as a coordination and control strategy in multinational organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 22: 248-263. 36- David G. Collings, Hugh Scullion and Michael J. Morley, Journal of World Business 42.2 (June 2007): p200. 37- Tahvanainen, M., Welch, D., Worm, V. (2005), Implications of short-term international assignments. European Management Journal, 23: p663-673. 38- David G. Collings, Hugh Scullion and Michael J. Morley, Journal of World Business 42.2 (June 2007): p210. 39- Sebastian Reiche, International Journal of Human Resource Management , 8.4 (April 2007): p529. B. Sebastian Reiche, International Journal of Human Resource Management , 8.4 (April 2007): p529. B. Sebastian Reiche, International Journal of Human Resource Management , 8.4 (April 2007): p530. 40-http://www.colmr.research.va.gov/mgmt_research_in_va/methodology/qualitative_research.cfm 41- Ahlstrom, David / Bruton, Garry / Chan, Eunice S. :HRM of foreign firms in China: The Challenge of Managing Host Country Personnel, Business Horizons 44(3), 2001, p, 59 68. 42- Blake, John / Amat Salas, Oriol / Wraith, Philip: Joint ventures in China a Spanish case, European Business Review 97(4), 1997, p. 155 161. 43- Foster, Dean: The Global Etiquette Guide: China, http://workabroad.monster.com/articles/chinaetiquitte/, 2001. 44- Huczynski, Andrzej / Buchanan, David: Organizational Behaviour An Introductory Text, 4th edition, London: Prentice Hall, 2001. 45- Brett, Jeanne; Behfar, Kristin; Kern, Mary C.. Harvard Business Review, Nov2006, Vol. 84 Issue 11, p87 (AN 22671287) 46- Adler,N.J.(2002) International dimensions of Organizational behavior, 4th edn

Utra Violet Radiation Essay -- Environment, Purple Violet Pigment, Pho

Protection against solar UV radiations in organisms includes production of secondary metabolites such as pigments that can absorb UV and visible light. In this study, vioA gene coding for tryptophan 2-monooxygenase involved in the biosynthetic pathway of violacein-like purple violet pigment (PVP) was cloned and sequenced from an Antarctic bacterium Janthinobacterium sp. Ant5-2. A non-pigmented vioA mutant strain was obtained following mini-Tn10 transposon mutagenesis that produced a lesser amount of extrapolymeric substances (EPS) and exhibited a compromised survival to freeze-thaw cycles at 4ËšC. Survival of vioA mutant strain during exponential and stationary growth phase was significantly reduced when exposed to UVB (320 nm) and UVC (254 nm) (dose range: 0-300 J/m ²) light. Decreased viability of the mutant strain was noticed at 4ËšC upon nutrient deprivation and exposure to UV light. The pigment production was augmented in surviving cells following increased doses of both UVB and UVC. Interestingly, at higher doses i.e. 100 and 300 J/m ², pigmented wild-type strain showed better survival to harmful UVC than UVB. This could be attributed to the pigment structure, which has absorption maxima in the visible (575 nm) as well as in the UVC (270 nm) range. In conclusion, this study defines the photoprotective role of the PVP in Janthinobacterium sp. Ant5-2 against UV radiation using single gene mutation. Perhaps the photoprotective role of PVP in this bacterium is one of the key adaptive features that define their survival in Antarctic extreme conditions, especially during austral summer months. INTRODUCTION The high energy photons in solar UV radiation are considered to be the most damaging component to the biological macromolec... ...x, which is involved in quorum sensing mediated biofilm formation (Morohoshi et al., 2010). Therefore, it is likely that loss of vioA has affected the biofilm formation in Ant5-2. Moreover, colony morphology demonstrated that PVP had substantial effect on the structural organization of colony biofilms (Fig. 4). The mechanisms whereby pigment production control colony morphology and EPS production is likely to be a complex issue yet to be determined (Dietrich et al., 2008). Until recently, the potential role of pigments as secondary metabolites modulating the cellular physiology of microorganisms in extreme environments has been neglected (Hernandez & Newman, 2001). This study provides an evidence for the role of PVP as a secondary metabolite in UV resistance and suggests its functions of primary importance in Ant5-2 residing in Antarctic extreme conditions.

Catholic Theology Essay Highlights -- essays research papers

*Sense experiences/depth experiences: not limited by the empirical data-the really â€Å"real† is not necessarily able to be seen. *Religious Experience (depth experience): Not just a sense experience, an experience that causes people to change, always touches on the â€Å"other† (the transcendent)-that which goes beyond our understanding (anything that we can come up with) (ie..who can really explain the sunset?). *Orthopraxis (Right-practice): The process of doing the right things. *Orthodoxy: Believing the right thing. *Sacramental Approach: Sacraments use the world around us as a way/event in which we encounter God: The way we do that is being involved with life/experiences in this world-that we are able to reach God in the afterlife (ex: eating is a way of being joined w/ God). *The things of this world matter-it becomes the way we reach God on the road to reaching eternal happiness (meeting God). *Foundation Theology/Fundamental Theology: Explains what theology is all about. *Theology: â€Å"Faith seeking understanding† – we need faith 1st before understanding can be reached. *Determining the â€Å"cannon† (cannon of scripture): list of writings that adequately express the faith of the community. *Apacal Writings: didn’t make it onto the list (cannon) because they didn’t adequately express what the community expressed as far as their understanding of faith. C.Rahner: Sees theology as the science/study of faith (it has excepted way of doing things).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *Theology has a special subject matter: the act & content of faith   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *Act: what it means to be a believer/a person of faith   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *Also sees faith as the goal of theology   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *We have to have faith 1st (it’s a gift given to us by God) *Theology doesn’t assume faith, it produces it. Theology is a practical science, it impels us to put what we know into action-practice what you preach. *Christian faith is a community based function, not an individual function. *Revelation: The historical passing over/on of beliefs (the interpretation of faith). *Catholic Theology: Lives build on faith in God who has been mediated to human beings through Jesus Christ. *Formative Factors in Theology (Macquarrie): where we get our theology from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1. Experience 2. Revelation: God making himself ... ...esus as the definitive revelation of God in the world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *Christ accepted as the center of the universe and the hope of humanity.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *Christ as both the way to realization of full humanity and the disclosure of the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   true face of God. *Act of faith embraces:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *Orthodoxy (Creed)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *Orthopoiesis (Code)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *Orthopraxis (Cult) *Difference between religious faith and primordial faith in the nature of the act of religious faith:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *Object of religious faith is transcendent and transcendental.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *Interior grace: first grace, supernatural existential, unrestricted desire to know   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   and love (love doesn’t know boundaries)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  *Exterior grace: second grace (based on message for community), God’s   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   revelation in Christ.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

Commenting on “Thomas of Monmouth: Detector of Ritual Murder” Gavin I. Langmuir wrote “Thomas of Monmouth: Detector of Ritual Murder”

Commenting on â€Å"Thomas of Monmouth: Detector of Ritual Murder† Gavin I. Langmuir wrote â€Å"Thomas of Monmouth: Detector of Ritual Murder,† which was published in Speculum’s October 1984 issue. In this article Langmuir discusses Thomas of Monmouth’s investigation of St. William of Norwich’s death, and accusations of ritual murder brought against Jews. Langmuir starts the article with some background information on â€Å"The Life and Passion of Saint William the Martyr of Norwich,† written by Thomas of Monmouth.He then makes his thesis statement: â€Å"Williams’s death had occasioned the first of the connected series of accusations from the twelfth to twentieth century that Jews committed ritual murder. † (Langmuir, Thomas of Monmouth: Detector of Ritual Murder, 821) Langmuir’s argument is that Thomas of Monmouth’s book is the modern inception of the myth that Jews commit ritual murder to reenact the crucifixio n of Jesus Christ. Since the accusation of ritual murder was also present in antiquity, Langmuir attempts to prove disconnect between Norwich and those prior myths.He also goes into detail about William’s murder, then Monmouth’s investigation and writings. He convincingly argues that Monmouth had allot to gain both in this world and the next by reporting William’s killing as a ritual murder preformed by Jews. Simply stated, Monmouth saw what he wanted to while investigating the crime. Langmuir uses a broad range of sources in his attempt to prove that the accusation at Norwich was not connected to the two accusations in antiquity. In this attempt he most frequently cites two works by Heinz Schreckenberg. He also cites over ten other authors while bringing this point home.On the other hand Langmuir’s argument of Monmouth’s motivation for creating the myth burrows deeply into a limited body of material, mostly Monmouth’s book itself. He also u ses two other sources when discussing Theobald, and only cites Miracles and Pilgrims by Finucane other than that. In the middle ages people saw Satan as an active force in the world. St. Gregory of Nyssa said when speaking of the Jews, that they were â€Å"confederates of the devil. † (Perry & Schweitzer, Antisemitism, 75) Chrysostom called Jews â€Å"inveterate murders, destroyers, men possessed by the devil. (Perry & Schweitzer, Antisemitism, 75) John (8:44) states in regard to Jews â€Å"You are of your father the devil, and your will is to do your father’s desires. † (Perry & Schweitzer, Antisemitism, 75)Not only were the people of the middle ages on the lookout for the devil, but their church was telling them that Jews were acting as his agents. This set up Jews as an easy scapegoat, and allowed for the creation of the ritual murder myth. In the case of William, Monmouth who was a monk had been predisposed to the notion that Jews were evil. In the gospels rendition as interpreted for centuries, the Jews are perceived as ‘the Christ killers,’ a people condemned forever to suffer exile and degradation. This arch crime of ‘decide,’ of murdering God, turned the Jews into the embodiment of evil, a ‘criminal people. ’† (Perry & Schweitzer, Antisemitism, 18)With this view it only makes sense that Monmouth would look to blame Jews for the boy’s murder, when murdering a boy is exactly something an evil criminal would do. It also makes sense that at the first sign of anything even resembling a crucifixion he would point to Jews, because according to the gospels they had done it before.In 1095 Pope Urban II began the first crusade when he called for â€Å"a religious military crusade to liberate the holiest places in Christendom. † (Laquer, The Changing Face of Antisemitism, 52) Many Jews were slaughtered during this crusade for various reasons. One reason was that the crusaders were to ld â€Å"anyone who killed a single Jew would have all his sins absolved. † (Laquer, The Changing Face of Antisemitism, 52) Authority figures were telling people that Jews are so evil that not only is murdering them OK, but it will even make up for anything wrong they had ever done.This was only fifty years before the incident at Norwich. With that mentality is only serves to reason that when the ordinary unnamed people were presented with Jews as ritual murders, it would be believable to them. In the Article on the top of page 822 Langmuir asks â€Å"who first accused Jews of crucifying a Christian child out of religious hatred? † Langmuir argues that there is not enough evidence to prove who killed William, or why. He does think there is enough evidence to establish that the enduring accusation of ritual murder began with William’s death. We know for certain that Monmouth accused Jews of ritual murder.Langmuir then works backwards from that point to prove that it was the first modern accusation of its kind. Langmuir starts with the first known accusation of ritual murder in recorded history. He discusses how in ancient Greece a story circulated that said â€Å"every seven years the Jews captured a Greek, fattened him up, killed him, and ate parts of him. † (Langmuir, Thomas of Monmouth: Detector of Ritual Murder, 823) He goes on to say that while the story did appear in â€Å"Against Apion,† the book was rare. He details why the book was rare, and does his best to prove a complete discontinuity between this accusation and Monmouth’s.Langmuir then writes about â€Å"The second and only other relevant accusation against Jews in antiquity. † (Langmuir, Thomas of Monmouth: Detector of Ritual Murder, 825) He tells the story of how in approximately the year 415, in the city of Imestar, Jews were accused of taking a Christian boy, tying him to a cross, and beating him until he died. Langmuir argues that while the sto ry did appear in â€Å"Historia Tripartita† only two copies were available in England, and that those copies date from the late twelfth or early thirteenth century, after the incident at Norwich.He also argues that â€Å"those who borrowed from ‘Historia Tripartia’ did so sparingly and most selectively, and the Imestar incident did not interest them. † Again Langmuir proves disconnect between the two incidents. Assuming that these are the only two accusations ever made prior to Norwich, then yes Langmuir answers the Question from the top of page 822. In this article Langmuir’s argument is persuasively supported, but he does not discuss the possibility of ritual murder stories being passed down orally. He also did not look at the possibility of books containing ritual murder accusations that may have been lost to history.For all we know Monmouth may have had a book that no longer exists detailing the accusations from antiquity or accusations we donâ €™t even know about. He is probably right in his conclusion that the incident at Norwich is the first modern accusation brought against Jews, but we cannot be sure. At times Langmuir calls into question other historians work, and makes convincing arguments as to why he thinks there wrong. He wrote referring to M. R. James belief that Monmouth’s book was written in 1172 or 1173 â€Å"there are several indications that the work was not all written at one time. (Langmuir, Thomas of Monmouth: Detector of Ritual Murder, 838) Langmuir did address other historians work on the subject, but sense he was the first person to propose that this was the first modern accusation of ritual murder, there were no other competing theories. I found this article to be very well organized, it laid out information in way that made it easy to understand. I really thought it was a good read, and enjoyed reading it. Langmuir was both interesting and informative. I would recommend this article to a nyone interested in this period in history.