Stace & Dunphy Essay Example for Free

Stace Dunphy EssayFive dilemmas that project characte pinchd decisions about memorial tabletal transfer1. Adaptive V rational dodge development2. Cultural switch V geomorphological substitute3. Continuous correctment V radical shift4. Empowerment V leadership and command. 5. frugal V Social goalsHaving discussed the five dilemmas, Dunphy and Stace (1996) differentiate them in terms of soft and hard approaches to managing changeSoft approaches argon characterised by adaptive strategy, cultural change, unvarying improvement and empowerment.while hard approaches are characterised by rational strategy, structural change, radical transformation and leadership and command.Introduction to Cultural remove Structural conquest in business is often determined by how effective an organization manages cultural change. That is success is not achieved by an executives skills alone, nor by the visible features the strategy, structure and settle with system of the organization. E very organization has an invisible tonicity a accredited style, a character, a way of doing things that whitethorn be more healthy than the dictates of whatever one person or any formal system. This invisible quality the corporate culture dictates how effective the organization is in the marketplace. Achieving cultural change to celebrate a prime market military posture has to be a key preoccupation of every chief executive. To understand the soul of the organization and the cultural change required necessitates us probing be diminished the below what is visible, e.g., charts, rule books, machines and buildings and into the underground world of peoples feelings, beliefs, perceptions, attitudes, behaviors, only then fag end the corporate culture be delimit and cultural change initiatives be identified.To provide meaning, direction and mobilisation, i.e., the mixer energy that moves the corporation into either productive action or destruction requires constant cultural chan ge to keep abreast of current management thinking and technology. Many organisations however simply do not recognise the need for cultural change and in that locationfore this social energy has barely been tapped whether diffused in all directions or even deactivated, it is not mobilised to protagonist the company. Most members seem apathetic or depressed about their jobs and no longer pressure one another to do well. Even cultural change pronouncements by top managers that they will improve the situation fall on the deaf ears of employees who adopt heard these promises before. Consequently, without cultural change macrocosm itself set about of the culture, the soul of the organisation slowly dies. The crucial social occasion of corporate cultural change in shaping behaviour, and the especially powerful effects of group norms, one way to turn around a nonadaptive company is to effect cultural change by managing its norms. Even cultural norms that dictate behaviour, opinions s tyle and attitudes, etc., can be brought to the surface, discussed and altered by cultural change initiatives.Experience of corporate consulting go, has revealed it helpful to have all group members (generally in a cultural change workshop setting) list the actual norms that currently sentry their behaviour and attitudes. This can be done for one or some(prenominal) cultural change groups, departments and divisions. Some judgment of convictions, it takes a little prodding and a few illustrations to remove the process started, but once it begins, cultural change group members are quick to suggest many norms. In fact, they seem to delight in being able to articulate what was never written in any document and rarely mentioned even in casual conversation between themselves.What is Structural ChangeStructure is the place where culture grows. The structure of the organization, its physical structure, its work processes and systems support and create the behavior of the people who work there. practically organizations distribute new com com committaling statements, beautiful posters with new values on them, but since the structure of the workplace does not support the mission or values, they are doomed to disappear. The networks of an organization flow as culture maintainers organization members who communicate in predic delay ways about predictable things ground on narration. Fundamental and lasting change requires the transformation of the networks that are the foundation for communication and relationships within the organization. By changing the way people sit, the processes they use, the structure of relationships between departments new networks form and old ones fade away.The structural changes should be small, many and high leverage. The changes should be small so that small numbers of volunteers can implement them quickly. Changing many things at the same time destabilizes the old, out-dated systems and processes. High leverage changes have a prof ound impact on the whole system. New structure forces new behaviors, just as changing the position of a wall in a room, or taking it away all together, causes people in the room to move and to change their guidance.(Ref Johnson Gerry and Scholes Kevan, (2002), exploring corporate strategy, 6 e/d, Printice Hall, UK)Structural change is enduring and difficult to undo. Once new walls, new systems and new processes are built to replace old structures, it is hard to come back to the old way of doing things. Remember when the typewriter and the computer sat in side-by-side in the offices and how the people continued to use their typewriters? As soon as the typewriters were gone, people switched to computers. A test for structural change is an econometric test to determine whether the coefficients in a regression model are the same in separate subsamples. Often the subsamples come from different time periods.CNN has picked up on a report by the New York Federal Reserve Bank that suggests that the recovery is jobless because there is a restructuring beginning to happen.In a recent report, economists at the New York Fed suggest that what is happening is structural. In past recessions job losses were ut nearly more cyclical The economy turned down, your company laid you off, but as soon as things got better you got hired back.Lets discuss an issue on structural and cultural change on The causes of Poverty in U.S. There are many competing theories about the causes of leanness in the United States with mountains of empirical tell apart to justify support for to each one. The debate among theorists and politymakers is primarily divided between advocates who support cultural/behavioural arguments and those who support structural/ economical arguments. This debate tends to manifest itself across political party lines with republicans supporting the cultural/behavioural thesis and democrats looking more to structural causes.(Ref http//www.canberra.edu.au)Structural Ca usesSupporters of the structural school of thought argue that nigh poorness can be traced back to structural factors inherent to either the economy and/or to several(prenominal) interrelated institutional environments that serve to favor certain groups over others, generally based on gender, class, or race. Of the various institutional environments that tend to sustain a multitude of economic barriers to different groups, it is discrimination based on race and gender that create the most insidious obstructions. The disproportionately high rate of poorness among women may be viewed as the consequence of a patriarchal society that continues to resist their inclusion in a part of society that has been historically dominated by men, and as a consequence, welfare course of instructions have been designed in ways that stigmatize public support for women as opposed to marital support both arrangements tend to reinforce patriarchy. In this regard, the rise in poverty among women is an important structural take aim variable to consider, but the lack of reliable data going back to 1947 makes testing difficult.This view is in part analogous to spatial mismatch theory, which generally hypothesizesthat the location and relative access to jobs of the disadvantaged group is more operablethan race per se. In a comprehensive literature review, Holzer concludes that spatial mismatch has a significant effect on Black employment and is primarily due to the low availability of well-paying jobs in the inner-city a situation brought on by job decentralization and increasing commute times to distant jobs. However, Holzer suggests that the root cause of higher unemployment among inner-city Blacks may not be clearly distinguishable between the characteristics of the people who reside in each place as opposed to the problems created by location per se..Structural economic factors include the level and variation in unemployment, median income, and measures of income inequality. Th e effects of unemployment and rises in median income are well documented and their relationship to poverty is intuitive. The rate of poverty tracks very closely with median income and in general, rises in median income has positive benefits for all classes, including the poor. Over the last half century, as median income has risen, the rate of poverty has decreased in close correlation. This relationship lends credibility to the argument that work is the best mechanism for lifting people out of poverty. Indeed, one of the clearest strategies for fighting poverty should be to focus on ensuring a strong and growing economy. However, for individuals to take full advantage of a strong and changing economy, they need education. Rises in income are positively correlated with educational attainment. Yet education is not equally accessible by all members of the population.Since property taxes represent the largest share of local school funding, the quality of education will necessarily vary relative the economic wealth of the locality. Federal and State funding represent smaller shares and are meant to level the compete fields somewhat, but they do not. It is education that allows people to adapt to changes in the economy and by extension changes in the demand for labour. During the latter half of the twentieth Century, the American economy shifted from one based on manufacturing to one based on services. The gains in wages and working conditions that were made in themanufacturing sector have been weakened by the service economy. For example, Wal-Mart offers its employees one of the weakest wage/benefits packages of any corporation of its kind and continues to fend off unionization it is now one the most powerful corporations with a huge market share and monopsony power over its suppliers. The gains in US GDP are in part due to the success of a consumer economy that rewards Wal-Mart and its cousin conglomerates, but at what cost to the Americans working low wage/bene fit jobs. The barriers created by these trends are difficult for the poor to overcome. How is the poor arouse supposed to take care of his/her family based on a near minimum wage job with poor and/or expensive health insurance coverage and child care? A publication by the Institute of Womens Policy Research demonstrates that many among the poor rely on several sources of income in shape to get by, including government assistance, income from other family members, child support, and job income. These multiple sources of income along with the stresses inherent to the pursuit of each would not be as needed if ample employment were available for livable wages and benefits.Economic Vs Social goalsSome obstacles to the development of new forms of work organisation have been recently report low level of awareness, poor access to evidence-based resources, ountervailing trends, distribution of the relevant competencies. When thinking of the impact of industrial relations on organisation al innovation, another sociological factor may be stressed Whatever the necessary roles of the collective social actors in the work organisation, employees are now definitely the key actors in this respect. However, in many countries, the history of industrial relations systems, the actual balance of power between employers and employees in companies and the growing social insecurity based on flexibility, lead many employees to wonder about the aim and the effects of the new forms of work organisation.They consider that companies are asking them for more efforts in their integrity interests (productivity, quality of product) without any evidence that it may improve employees ones ( working conditions, job security, wages, industrial democracy). For them and for some of their unions, closing the gap with stakeholders is an illusion, and improving workers involvement requires a real balance between economic and social goals in organisational innovation. Therefore, in some industrial relations systems, even more than technical tools, learning processes, used rhetorics or formal provisions, this balance is a staple fibre precondition for most employees to implement and develop new forms of work organisation.In order to meet this precondition, i.e. to ensure both economic and social goals in work organisation, a major tool is employee representatives participation in the decision making, the monitoring and the rating of organisational changes at every regulatory level. Proposals are already on the table that actors should build coalitions or should have a proactive role in developing these changes. But in many countries, such proposals cannot be implemented if employers or managers remain the only decision makers in work organisation. Confirming this approach, the EPOC results (Employee Participation in Organisational Change, a programme including a survey on 5800 European companies) reported that, from most managers point of views, the more employee representa tives are involved in the regulation of direct participation, the more this participation is efficiently implemented, with a good impact on cost reduction, improvement of quality of product/service, absenteeism. In the same way, in France, reducing working time by law finally was, in many companies, the best way for actors to co-operate in changing work organisation.The deal was clear, with advantages for both partners. Such a social actors involvement in regulation of work organisation is now converging with a more general trend in industrial relations systems towards what may be called a multilevel model of set autonomy, involving social partners in co-producing rules at most interlinked levels of work regulation, from the European level to the workplace one. Moreover, this model itself between deregulation and old top-down regulation- is clearly aimed at introducing regulatory flexibility at local levels while common rules may be kept at upper levels. The Auroux Law was the fir st example in France of such a model. So, in order to establish balanced goals and advantages in organisational change, and more generally in order to co-produce work regulation, employees representatives are or should be at the core of the system. But a major problem then appear. Their weakness in many countries, specially at company level, is often conduct to unbalanced situations in which they dont have the power to play their roles of counterpower. In the long run, the results of the bargaining between unbalanced partners often look unbalanced and not satisfactory for workers, for instance about employment, precariousness or working conditions.(Ref Lynch Richard, (2000), corporate strategy, 8 e/d, Prentice Hall, England.)Empowerment Leadership and commandEmpowerment valuation is part of the intellectual landscape of valuation. It has been adopted in higher education, government, inner-city public education, nonprofit corporations, and foundations throughout the United Stat es and abroad. A wide range of program and policy sectors use empowerment evaluation, including substance abuse prevention, HIV prevention, crime prevention, environmental protection, welfare reform, battered womens shelters, agriculture and rural development, adult probation, adolescent pregnancy prevention, tribal partnership for substance abuse, self-determination and individuals with disabilities, doctoral programs, and educational reform (the Accelerated Schools Project a national educational reform movement). Descriptions of programs that use empowerment evaluation appear in Empowerment Evaluation Knowledge and Tools for Self-assessment and Accountability (Fetterman, Kaftarian, and Wandersman 1996).Foundations of Empowerment Evaluation presents a complete description about how to conduct an empowerment evaluation (Fetterman, 2001). The definition of a leader is someone who has followers. To gain followers requires influence but doesnt exclude the lack of integrity in achievin g this. Indeed, it can be argued that several of the worlds greatest leaders have lacked integrity and have adopted values that would not be divided by many people today. Empowerment evaluation has three steps. The first step is establishing a mission or vision statement about the program. Some groups do not like the terms mission or vision and instead prefer to focus on results. They state the results they would like to see, based on the outcome of the implemented program and map rearward endash- specifying activities required to achieve those processes and outcomes. The second step, taking stock, involves identifying and prioritizing the most significant program activities. Then program staff members and participants rate how well the program is doing in each of those activities, typically on a 1 (low) to 10 (high) scale, and discuss the ratings. This helps to determine where the program stands, including strengths and weaknesses. The third step involves charting a course for th e future.The group states goals and strategies to achieve their dreams. Goals help program staff members and participants determine where they want to go in the future with an explicit emphasis on program improvement. Strategies help them accomplish program goals. These efforts are monitored using credible documentation. Empowerment jurists help program staff members and participants identify the type of evidence required to document progress toward their goals. Evaluation becomes a part of the normal planning and management of the program, which is a core of institutionalizing and naturalizing evaluation. Empowerment evaluation is fundamentally a democratic process. The entire group not a single individual, not the impertinent evaluator or an internal manager is responsible for conducting the evaluation. The group thus can serve as a check on its own members, moderating the various biases and agendas of individual members. The evaluator is a co-equal in this endeavor, not a su perior and not a servant as a critical friend, the evaluator can question shared biases or group think.Conclusion on DilemmasWhile measurement issues remain, including the applicability of a national level analysis to various regions and cities each with potentially differentiated forms and causes of poverty, the final Model V of this analysis provides a useful framework for understanding the general causes of poverty at the national level. Contrary to the hypothesis of the paper, the cultural variables employed could not be integrated with the structural/political variables into a larger model that demo the dynamic interrelation between the structural environment, cultural processes, and behavioral outcomes as theorized by Orlando PattersonEmpowerment evaluation has three steps. The first step is establishing a mission or vision statement about the program. Some groups do not like the terms mission or vision and instead prefer to focus on results. They state the results they would like to see, based on the outcome of the implemented program and map backwards endash- specifying activities required to achieve those processes and outcomes.The second step, taking stock, involves identifying and prioritizing the most significant program activities. Then program staff members and participants rate how well the program is doing in each of those activities, typically on a 1 (low) to 10 (high) scale, and discuss the ratings. This helps to determine where the program stands, including strengths and weaknesses.The third step involves charting a course for the future. The group states goals and strategies to achieve their dreams. Goals help program staff members and participants determine where they want to go in the future with an explicit emphasis on program improvement. Strategies help them accomplish program goals. These efforts are monitored using credible documentation. Empowerment evaluators help program staff members and participants identify the type of evidenc e required to document progress toward their goals. Evaluation becomes a part of the normal planning and management of the program, which is a means of institutionalizing and internalizing evaluation.Empowerment evaluation is fundamentally a democratic process. The entire group not a single individual, not the external evaluator or an internal manager is responsible for conducting the evaluation. The group thus can serve as a check on its own members, moderating the various biases and agendas of individual members. The evaluator is a co-equal in this endeavor, not a superior and not a servant as a critical friend, the evaluator can question shared biases or group think.As is the case in traditional evaluation, everyone is accountable in one fashion or another and thus has an interest or agenda to protect. A school district may have a five-year plan designed by the superintendent a graduate school may have to satisfy requirements of an accreditation association an outside evaluator may have an important but demanding sponsor pushing either timelines or results, or may be influenced by training to use one theoretical approach rather than another. Empowerment evaluations, like all other evaluations, exist within a context. However, the range of intermediate objectives linking what most people do in their daily routine and macro goals is almost infinite. People often feel empowered and self-determined when they can select intermediate objectives that are linked to larger, global goals. In addition, a self-evaluation is more meaningful when linked to external requirements and demands.Empowerment evaluation also empowers external evaluators. Specifically, the external evaluators role and productivity is enhanced by the presence of an empowerment or internal evaluation process. Most evaluators operate significantly below their content in an evaluation because the program lacks even rudimentary evaluation mechanisms and processes. The external evaluator routinely d evotes time to the development and maintenance of elementary evaluation systems. Programs that already have a basic self-evaluation process in place enable external evaluators to begin operating at a much more civilize level.References* Lynch Richard, (2000), corporate strategy, 8 e/d, Prentice Hall, England.* Channon Derek f., (1999), Encyclopedic vocabulary of strategy management, Blackwell Business, UK.* Lynch Richard, (2000), corporate strategy, 8 e/d, Prentice Hall, England.* Channon Derek f., (1999), Encyclopedic Dictionary of strategy management, Blackwell Business, UK.* Johnson Gerry and Scholes Kevan, (2002), exploring corporate strategy, 6 e/d, Printice Hall, UK.* Robson Wendy, (1997), strategic management and information system, 2 e/d, Prentice Hall, England.* http//www.canberra.edu.au* http//www.drew-associates.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk